Science : Scientific community

The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conducts scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.[211]

Scientists

Portrait of a middle-aged woman
Marie Curie was the first person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes: Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911.[120]
Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.[212][213] In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting and upon completion, attain an academic degree, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy or PhD.[214] Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.[215][216][217]

Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists have advanced degrees[218] in an area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit environments.[219][220]

Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. Women in science faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently being passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.[221] The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as laborers within the domestic sphere.[222] Lifestyle choice plays a major role in female engagement in science; female graduate students' interest in careers in research declines dramatically throughout graduate school, whereas that of their male colleagues remains unchanged.[223]

Learned societies

Picture of scientists in 200th anniversary of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, 1900
Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance.[224] Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline, profession, or group of related disciplines.[225] Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election.[226] Most scientific societies are non-profit organizations,[227] and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some societies act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership.[citation needed]

The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished academies of sciences such as the Italian Accademia dei Lincei in 1603,[228] the British Royal Society in 1660,[229] the French Academy of Sciences in 1666,[230] the American National Academy of Sciences in 1863,[231] the German Kaiser Wilhelm Society in 1911,[232] and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1949.[233] International scientific organizations, such as the International Science Council, are devoted to international cooperation for science advancement.[234]

Awards
Science awards are usually given to individuals or organizations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions, thus it is considered a great honor for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists are often awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.[235]